• Artículo de reflexión

    ¿Está presente la degeneración en el ámbito cooperativo? Evidências de Portugal

    Vol. 34 Núm. 134 (2026)
    Publicado: 03/24/2026
    Ricardo Borges dos Santos
    Autonomous University of Lisbon image/svg+xml

    Las cooperativas pueden sufrir un proceso de degeneración. La degeneración se produce cuando una cooperativa se transforma en una empresa capitalista o actúa como tal. En Portugal, solo es posible la degeneración de comportamiento, ya que la transformación de cooperativas en empresas capitalistas está prohibida por ley. En términos de comportamiento, la degeneración cooperativa implica la sustitución de los socios originales por empleados que no son socios. En este trabajo investigamos si las cooperativas portuguesas se enfrentan a un entorno propicio para la degeneración, estudiando la evolución de la proporción de empleados no socios en la cooperativa. Mediante el uso de modelos de respuesta fraccionaria y datos de cooperativas portuguesas correspondientes al periodo 2010-2019, no podemos rechazar la hipótesis de que la degeneración pueda estar presente en dichas cooperativas. Observamos que unas cuotas de afiliación más elevadas y, en cierta medida, un mayor tamaño de la empresa potencia la degeneración, mientras que la experiencia mitiga este proceso. Al restringir el análisis a las cooperativas que cuentan con trabajadores no socios, se constata que unos salarios más altos y una mayor proporción de trabajadoras también potencian la degeneración, mientras que el nivel educativo atenúa dicho proceso. Por otro lado, no encontramos pruebas de que la política de promoción de la cooperativa influya en el proceso de degeneración ni de que esta sea más frecuente en sectores intensivos en mano de obra.

    Palabras clave: cooperativas, degeneración, cuota de afiliación, problema del horizonte

    Cómo citar

    Borges dos Santos, R. (2026). ¿Está presente la degeneración en el ámbito cooperativo? Evidências de Portugal. Cooperativismo & Desarrollo, 34(134), 1-24. https://doi.org/10.16925/2382-4220.2026.01.03

    Bartlett, W., Cable, J., Estrin, S., Jones, D. C., & Smith, S. C. (1992). Labor-managed cooperatives and private firms in north-central Italy: An empirical comparison. Industrial and Labor Relations Review, 46(1), 103–118. https://doi.org/10.2307/2524741 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/001979399204600108

    Becchetti, L., & Castriota, S. (2010). Wage differentials in social enterprises: Education premium and the role of PPP geographical disparities (Working Paper AICCON No. 68). Università di Bologna, sede di Forlì.

    Ben-Ner, A. (1984). On the stability of the cooperative type of organization. Journal of Comparative Economics, 8(3), 247–260. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/0147-5967(84)90055-6

    Ben-Ner, A. (1988). Comparative empirical observations on worker-owned and capitalist firms. International Journal of Industrial Organization, 6(1), 7–31. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/0167-7187(88)90003-3

    Bowles, S. (2004). Microeconomics: Behavior, institutions, and evolution. Russell Sage Foundation. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1515/9781400829316

    Bradley, K. (1980). A comparative analysis of producer cooperatives: Some theoretical and empirical investigations. British Journal of Industrial Relations, 18(2), 155–168. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8543.1980.tb00841.x

    Bretos, I., Errasti, A., & Marcuello, C. (2019). Is there life after degeneration? The organizational life cycle of cooperatives under a ‘grow-or-die’ dichotomy. Annals of Public and Cooperative Economics, 91(3), 435–458. [Nota: verificar volumen, número y páginas definitivas si se consultó la versión impresa o en línea de la revista]. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/apce.12258

    Burdín, G. (2014). Are worker-managed firms more likely to fail than conventional enterprises? Evidence from Uruguay. ILR Review, 67(1), 202–238. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/001979391406700108

    Burdín, G. (2016). Equality under threat by the talented: Evidence from worker-managed firms. The Economic Journal, 126(594), 1372–1403. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/ecoj.12272

    Burdín, G., & Dean, A. (2009). New evidence on wages and employment in worker cooperatives compared with capitalist firms. Journal of Comparative Economics, 37(4), 517–533. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jce.2009.08.001

    Card, D. (1994). Earnings, schooling, and ability revisited (NBER Working Paper Series No. 4832). National Bureau of Economic Research. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3386/w4832

    Chaves, R., & Sajardo, A. (2004). Social economy managers: Between values and entrenchment. Annals of Public and Cooperative Economics, 75(1), 139–161. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8292.2004.00246.x

    Clemente, J., Diaz-Foncea, M., Marcuello, C., & Sanso-Navarro, M. (2012). The wage gap between cooperative and capitalist firms: Evidence from Spain. Annals of Public and Cooperative Economics, 83(3), 303–329. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8292.2012.00466.x

    Cook, M. L. (2018). A life cycle explanation of cooperative longevity. Sustainability, 10(5), 1586. https://doi.org/10.3390/su10051586 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/su10051586

    Cornforth, C. (1995). Patterns of cooperative management: Beyond the degeneration thesis. Economic and Industrial Democracy, 16(4), 487–523. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0143831X95164002

    Cornforth, C., Thomas, A., Lewis, R., & Spear, R. (1988). Developing successful working co-operatives. SAGE Publications.

    Dean, A. (2019). Do successful worker-managed firms degenerate? Journal of Comparative Economics, 47(4), 844–861. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jce.2019.01.003

    Devereux, P. J., & Fan, W. (2011). Earnings returns to the British education expansion. Economics of Education Review, 30(6), 1153–1166. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econedurev.2011.03.004

    Dow, G. K. (2018). The theory of the labor-managed firm: Past, present, and future. Annals of Public and Cooperative Economics, 89(1), 137–162. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/apce.12194

    Drèze, J. (1989). Labor management, contracts, and capital markets: A general equilibrium approach. Basil Blackwell.

    Estrin, S., & Jones, D. C. (1992). The viability of employee-owned firms: Evidence from France. Industrial and Labor Relations Review, 45(2), 323–338. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/001979399204500209

    Fakhfakh, F., Pérotin, V., & Gago, M. (2012). Productivity, capital, and labor in labor-managed and conventional firms: An investigation on French data. Industrial and Labor Relations Review, 65(4), 847–879. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/001979391206500404

    Grenet, J. (2013). Is it enough to increase compulsory education to raise earnings? Evidence from French and British compulsory schooling laws. Scandinavian Journal of Economics, 115(1), 176–210. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9442.2012.01739.x

    Hansmann, H. (1996). The ownership of enterprise. Belknap Press.

    Kalmi, P. (2004). Exclusion from employee ownership: Evidence from Estonian case studies. Advances in the Economic Analysis of Participatory & Labor-Managed Firms, 8, 35–65. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0885-3339(04)08002-0

    Magne, N. (2017). Wage inequality in workers’ cooperatives and conventional firms. The European Journal of Comparative Economics, 14(2), 303–329.

    Martins, P. S., & Pereira, P. T. (2004). Does education reduce wage inequality? Quantile regression evidence from 16 countries. Labor Economics, 11(3), 355–371. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.labeco.2003.05.003

    Meira, D. (2017). The admission fee and the principle of voluntary and open membership: Comments on the judgement delivered by Guimarães Court of Appeal on the 25th March 2016. Cooperativismo e Economía Social, 39, 293–311.

    Meister, A. (1984). Participation, associations, development, and change. Transaction Books.

    Mishel, L. (2021). The enormous impact of eroded collective bargaining on wages. Economic Policy Institute. https://www.epi.org/

    Miyazaki, H. (1984). On success and dissolution of the labor-managed firm in the capitalist economy. Journal of Political Economy, 92(5), 909–931. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1086/261264

    Monteiro, N. P., & Stewart, G. (2015). Scale, scope, and survival: A comparison of cooperative and capitalist modes of production. Review of Industrial Organization, 47(1), 91–118. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11151-015-9464-1

    Monteiro, N. P., & Straume, O. R. (2018). Are cooperatives more productive than investor-owned firms? Cross-industry evidence from Portugal. Annals of Public and Cooperative Economics, 89(2), 377–414. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/apce.12201

    Papke, L. E., & Wooldridge, J. M. (1996). Econometric methods for fractional response variables with an application to 401(k) plan participation rates. Journal of Applied Econometrics, 11(6), 619–632. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1099-1255(199611)11:6<619::AID-JAE418>3.0.CO;2-1

    Podivinsky, J. M., & Stewart, G. (2007). Why is labor-managed firm entry so rare? An analysis of UK manufacturing data. Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, 63(1), 177–192. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jebo.2006.02.001

    Ramalho, E. A., Ramalho, J. J. S., & Murteira, J. M. R. (2011). Alternative estimating and testing empirical strategies for fractional regression models. Journal of Economic Surveys, 25(1), 19–68. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6419.2009.00602.x

    Rosner, M. (1984). A search for “coping strategies” or forecasts of cooperative degeneration? Economic and Industrial Democracy, 5(3), 391–399. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0143831X8453006

    Rothschild-Whitt, J. (1976). Conditions facilitating participatory-democratic organizations. Sociological Inquiry, 46(2), 75–86. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-682X.1976.tb00752.x

    Russell, R. (1984). The role of culture and ethnicity in the degeneration of democratic firms. Economic and Industrial Democracy, 5(1), 73–96. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0143831X8451005

    Schneiberg, M., King, M., & Smith, T. (2008). Social movements and organizational form: Cooperative alternatives to corporations in the American insurance, dairy, and grain industries. American Sociological Review, 73(4), 635–667. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/000312240807300406

    Simons, T., & Ingram, P. (1997). Organization and ideology: Kibbutzim and hired labor, 1951–1965. Administrative Science Quarterly, 42(4), 784–813. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/2393657

    Varman, R., & Chakrabarti, M. (2004). Contradictions of democracy in a workers’ cooperative. Organization Studies, 25(2), 183–208. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0170840604036913

    MÉTRICAS
    VISTAS DEL ARTÍCULO: 49
    VISTAS DEL PDF: 35